The Multilateral Instrument and International Taxation
The Multilateral Convention represents one of the most significant international tax developments in modern history. Introduced under the OECD/G20 Base Erosion and Profit Shifting (BEPS) Project, the Multilateral Instrument (MLI) aims to swiftly and efficiently update existing bilateral tax treaties to reflect the new global standards on transparency, anti-avoidance, and dispute resolution—without requiring individual renegotiation of each treaty.
Before the MLI, more than 3,000 bilateral tax treaties governed cross-border taxation, many of which were outdated and lacked safeguards against double non-taxation, treaty shopping, and artificial profit shifting. The MLI provides a unified legal instrument to amend these treaties simultaneously, enhancing coherence, consistency, and fairness across jurisdictions.
The Purpose and Scope of the MLI
The MLI was developed as Action 15 of the BEPS Project and entered into force on 1 July 2018. Its main purpose is to modify existing double tax agreements (DTAs) to implement the tax treaty-related measures arising from the BEPS Action Plan, specifically those addressing:
Hybrid mismatches (Action 2) aim to prevent double deductions or deduction/non-inclusion outcomes. Treaty abuse (Action 6) focuses on eliminating opportunities for treaty shopping and inappropriate benefits. Artificial avoidance of permanent establishment (PE) status (Action 7) works to prevent businesses from fragmenting operations in order to escape taxation. Improving dispute resolution (Action 14) ensures the timely and effective resolution of tax disputes through mutual agreement procedures (MAPs).
By ratifying the MLI, a jurisdiction effectively opts in or out of certain provisions (known as “reservations” and “notifications”) that define how the MLI modifies its existing treaties with other signatories.
Mechanism of Application
The MLI operates through a matching mechanism, meaning it only modifies provisions where both treaty partners have made compatible elections. This ensures flexibility for sovereign states while maintaining legal clarity.
Covered Tax Agreements (CTAs) refer to treaties that are mutually listed by both jurisdictions, making them “covered” under the MLI. Each provision of the MLI interacts with existing treaty language through compatibility clauses, which may involve “replacement,” “modification,” or “addition” clauses. The entry into effect of the MLI varies depending on the ratification, deposit, and notification dates of each jurisdiction, often leading to staggered application across different treaties.
For example, if Country A and Country B have both ratified the MLI, and each has listed their DTA with the other as a CTA, the modifications take effect from the later of the two jurisdictions’ dates of ratification and notification.
Key Articles and Their Practical Impact
The MLI introduces several important measures to address issues in international taxation. Articles 6 and 7 focus on the prevention of treaty abuse, establishing a Principal Purpose Test (PPT) as the minimum standard to combat treaty abuse. This test denies treaty benefits when obtaining those benefits was one of the principal purposes of an arrangement, unless granting them aligns with the treaty’s object and purpose. Some jurisdictions also adopt a Limitation on Benefits (LOB) clause or a combined PPT-LOB approach for added rigor.
Articles 12 to 15 address the avoidance of permanent establishment (PE) status, targeting structures where companies avoided creating a taxable presence through dependent agents, commissionaire arrangements, or artificially splitting contracts. The new definitions of PE expand the scope of what constitutes a taxable business presence, particularly for construction and service projects. Articles 16 to 19 aim to improve dispute resolution by strengthening the Mutual Agreement Procedure (MAP) framework, requiring good-faith resolution of disputes and, in some cases, mandatory binding arbitration. This enhances certainty for multinational enterprises facing double taxation. Finally, Articles 3 to 5 address hybrid mismatches and transparent entities by clarifying the tax treatment of hybrid entities and dual-resident companies, ensuring income is taxed once rather than being doubly deducted or excluded.
Global Adoption and Implementation
As of 2025, over 100 jurisdictions have signed the MLI, and more than 2,000 treaties are already modified or expected to be modified. Countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, India, and France have widely implemented the MLI, while others, including the United States, have opted not to sign, preferring bilateral negotiations.
For developing economies, especially in Africa and Asia, the MLI represents a crucial tool to align with international norms without the administrative burden of renegotiating multiple treaties.
Future Outlook
The MLI has proven that multilateral reform is feasible in international tax law, traditionally one of the most bilateral areas of public international cooperation. The OECD’s ongoing BEPS 2.0 initiatives—particularly the Pillar One and Pillar Two frameworks on digital taxation and minimum global tax—will likely rely on a similar multilateral approach.
Over time, as more countries ratify and align their treaty networks, the MLI’s harmonizing effect will become more pronounced, reducing opportunities for tax base erosion while ensuring fair taxation where economic value is created.
Conclusion
The MLI stands as a landmark in international tax cooperation, combining speed, flexibility, and legal precision. While its implementation poses challenges, it remains the most effective instrument to modernize global tax treaties in a coordinated and consistent manner. For multinational enterprises, understanding the MLI’s impact on treaty benefits, permanent establishment risks, and dispute resolution procedures is now essential for managing cross-border tax exposure in an increasingly complex world.
Frequently Asked Questions
How to claim tax refunds in Egypt under double tax treaties?
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File a refund request with the Egyptian Tax Authority (ETA) under Law No. 206 of 2020. Include a residency certificate, contracts, proof of withholding, invoices, and financials. The ETA reviews and issues a decision.
Who is eligible for tax refunds in Egypt?
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Residents and non-residents are eligible when taxes collected in Egypt exceed DTAA limits—common for services, PEs/subsidiaries, or passive income like interest, dividends, and royalties.
What documents are required for tax refunds in Egypt?
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A legalized tax residency certificate, the governing contract (with certified Arabic translation), beneficial ownership declaration, corporate documents, group structure, financial statements, invoices, and proof of Egyptian withholding/tax forms.
How long does a tax refund take in Egypt?
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Timelines depend on ETA review and file completeness. Law No. 206 of 2020 sets procedural deadlines, but extra information requests can extend processing in practice.
Can non residents apply for tax refunds in Egypt?
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Yes. Non-resident companies facing excess withholding in Egypt may request refunds under the applicable DTAA. Refunds may be paid in cash or carried forward as a credit.
What is the legal basis for tax refunds in Egypt?
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Refunds are grounded in Unified Tax Procedures Law No. 206 of 2020 and Egypt’s Double Taxation Avoidance Agreements, which provide the procedural and substantive rules for relief.
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